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innovation: semantic narrowing to hitting with the hand), (probable *tliiz-, adj. An Encyclopedia of Language. [169] As there is no evidence for the "prefix conjugation" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, it is unclear whether this was a Proto-Afroasiatic feature that has been lost in those branches or is a shared innovation among Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic. The other three are very closely related and it is not hard for, say, a Dane to learn to understand a Swede. Kujarge Hadza, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Appendix:Proto-Afroasiatic_reconstructions&oldid=68902118, attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix, attributive and complement deverbative suffix, noun derivation from verb by stem-vowel lengthening, (Sem., Eg. [66] Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, "Negroid" Chadic languages were in the same family as the "Caucasian" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites. innovation: 'to rub' > 'to scrape'), (* and *a are reconstructed because they are required in derived root #651 below), (#649 + *r diffus. With the exception of its Semitic branch, all branches of the Afroasiatic family are . . in *n, as also in #210), (Sem., Eg. Afroasiatic is generally considered to be comprised of the language families Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Omotic, and Semitic. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. 1 Afro-Asiatic Language Family. p-Central Chadic in East Africa. p-Ijaw < v. in #918 by V > VV; occurrence of PSC *ee (or *e?) p-Heiban ); to reach out, (only C. reflexes imply 2nd form with reconstructed *a), to remove (from surface), pull, tear, or scrape off, to grumble, sigh, make sounds of complaint, (Eg., Sem. A main characteristic of Afro-Asiatic languages is the use of vowel changes in word formation. [6] This can be found in Semitic, Egyptian, Beja, Berber, and Chadic. ), to extend, stretch out (intr. In Arabic, ti-ktib means she writes and katab-it means she wrote. Proto-Afroasiatic is a language and NOT an ethnicity: Proto-Afroasiatic language - Wikipedia There is no proof where the Afroasiatic languages originated, but the oldest Afroasiatic language writing has been found in Egypt and dated 6000 years. p-Semitic, Khoisan While there is no consensus among historical linguists concerning the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family or the period when the parent language (i.e. [88], Egyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch all require a syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes). They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function. > *itsan-; Omotic innovation: stem + *m n. South Bauchi This language family has now been renamed Afro-Asiatic, because this term is less culture specific (Dalby, p.6). [198] Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions as "controversial", and Ehret's as "not acceptable to many scholars". [137][d] Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication. In current scholarship, the most common names used for the family are Afroasiatic (or Afro-Asiatic), Hamito-Semitic, and Semito-Hamitic. [99] Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left Boreafrasian, the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). innovation: derivation of v. 'to sleep' by addition of *n non-fin. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is proposed to have been spoken 18,000 years ago near the Horn of Africa (eastern Africa). Afro-Asiatic is divided into six branches: Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic, Chadic and Omotic. [84] Prominent in this camp is the linguist Alexander Militarev, who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in the Levant and subsequently spread to Africa. Both works provide highly divergent reconstructions and have been heavily criticized by other scholars. The speakers of Boreafrasian migrated north to an arid Sahara climate, then eventually pushed on west and east. shared innovation: 'raise' > 'lift, pick up'; probable further Ch., Eg., Sem. Lafofa, p-Afroasiatic Continue Reading 5 Brian Collins xvii + 557. [11] Because the term "Afroasiatic" could be taken to mean that the family includes all the languages of Africa and Asia, the term "Afrasian" is sometimes used instead; this name was proposed by Igor Diakonoff (1980) and is mostly used by Russian scholars. Linguists use the term "state" to refer to different things in different languages. [31], A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. [40] Scholars have proposed locations both in the Middle East and in Africa. It's impossible to tell exactly how old Proto-Afroasiatic is, or where it was spoken, but there are a few ideas. [90], Syllable weight plays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word. [97] All Afroasiatic languages contain stops and fricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such as affricates and lateral consonants. Root Structure Patterning in Proto-Kartvelian. innovation: stem + *n n. suff. [21] They are often considered to constitute a single language with multiple dialects. [184] Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two. suff. Fig. [103] Igor M. Diakonoff proposed that Proto-AA had a three vowel system of long and short a, i, and u. innovation: *agaw- 'cooked grain,' stem + *w n. Well-known Afroasiatic languages include Arabic, Ancient Egyptian, Somali, Tuareg, and Hausa. [72] Earlier, the first scholar to question to existence of "Hamitic languages" was Marcel Cohen (1924),[9] while skepticism was also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann (1920s and '30s). Aunque las estimaciones varan ampliamente, los eruditos creen que se hablaba como un solo idioma hace entre 12.000 y 18.000 aos (12 a 18 kya ), es decir, entre 16.000 y 10.000 a . US$62.00 (softcover). [104] Several Omotic languages have "sibilant harmony", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) suff. [30] A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of "independent" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. [129] Full or partial reduplication of the verb is often used to derive forms showing repeated action (pluractionality), though it is unclear if this is an inherited feature or has been widely borrowed. as denom. Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left 'Boreafrasian,' the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). [176], Due to its presence in the oldest attested and best-known AA branches, nisba derivation is often thought of as a "quintessentially Afroasiatic feature". innovation: integration of *t dur. [50], Most authorities divide Semitic into two branches: East Semitic, which includes the extinct Akkadian language and West Semitic, which includes Arabic, Aramaic, the Canaanite languages, including Hebrew, as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Ge'ez and Amharic. [191], The Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. innovation: addition of *w inchoative to stem), (root #866 with *-u- tr. [117] In the different languages, central vowels are often inserted to break up consonant clusters (a form of epenthesis). Greenberg, 1958 D. Cohen,. rather than the subject and object. [49][48] Arabic, spoken in both Asia and Africa, has around 300 million native speakers, while the Ethiopian Amharic has around 25 million. The name Hamitic originates from Ham, one of the sons of Noah. Linguistics 450 Additional Proposed PAA Roots; Appendix 4. Afroasiatic. [127] These pronouns tend to show a masculine "u" and a feminine "i". The reconstruction of Proto-Afroasiatic is problematic and . [77] Roger Blench writes that the debate has "a strong ideological flavor", with associations between an Asian origin and "high civilization". Proto-Afroasiatic phonology has been the subject of several proposals for reconstruction that are not only different from each other, but also very divergent (cf. (abbrev. However, not one of Militarev's proposed 32 agricultural roots can be considered diagnostic of cultivation. [99] Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of vowel harmony. In the above model, Taforalt draws about half of their ancestry (you can call this ANA) from a population that also (likely through a sister population) contributes the . show more all catalog, articles, website, & more in one search catalog books, media & more in the Stanford Libraries' collections articles+ journal articles & other e-resources Olukumi ; short vowel required by derived verb #399), calabash (used as container, utensil, etc. >>14700322 >Proto-Semitic language contact with PIE implies the Semitic languages themselves come from J Caucasians. El proto-afroasitico , a veces denominado proto-afrasiano , es el proto-lenguaje reconstruido del que descienden todas las lenguas afroasiticas modernas . Archaeology and the study of oral traditions helps linguists find connections between language families. [28], Chadic languages number between 150 and 190, making Chadic the largest family in Afroasiatic. [76], There is no consensus where the original homeland (Urheimat) of the first Afroasiatic speakers was located. If so, semantics are unclear), (pl. Yendang [27] The first is the Numidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the Libyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. [11], Greenberg reintroduced the name "Afroasiatic" in 1960, a name seemingly coined by Maurice Delafosse (as French afroasiatique) in 1914. These records make it possible to classify and reconstruct many languages. ), #209 + Afroasiatic pl. Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic are also spoken north of the Sahara so it must be assumed that the speakers of these "dialects" migrated north likewise, though perhaps separately from the Boreafrasian speakers (Dalby, p.6). In addition to the languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes many ancient languages, such as Egyptian, which forms a distinct branch of the family; and within the Semitic family, Akkadian, Hebrew, Phoenician, other Canaanite languages, Amorite, Ugaritic and Aramaic. innovation: as synonym for #505), (vowel reconstruction uncertain: PAA *u, *ee, or *oo are also possible here; contrary to earlier views, this is surely a distinct root from #503), (Eg., Sem. suff. Published 1995 Linguistics This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). Proto-Cushitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1987) Appendix 3. ), (root #695 + *f iter.? to different specific animals), (possible vowel reconstructions: *a, *aa, *e, or *o), (Sem., Ch. For example, the Hamitic component inaccurately suggests the existence of a monophyletic "Hamitic" branch alongside Semitic. p-Khoe Dalby, Andrew. p-Manjaku [113] These rules also have a number of exceptions: Similar exceptions can be demonstrated for the other AA branches that have these restrictions to their root formation. >I find it odd how Semitic is still Afroasiatic even though it's tied to a non-E haplogroup Egyptian and Semitic are both J. Cushitic is T and Chadic is J/R1b-V88. [174] It is found in Egyptian, Semitic, and possibly, in some relic forms, Berber. [130], Many AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb. p-Fali [17][18] Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label "Hamito-Semitic" is at this point simply convention and no more implies an opposition between Semitic and "Hamitic" languages than "Indo-European" implies a "European" and an Indic branch. Some features observed in most or all Afroasiatic languages include: It remains unclear what word order Proto-Afroasiatic had. [9] ( [54] Greenberg rejected the Afroasiatic classification of languages that Meinhof had classified as "Hamitic" based on racial and anthropological data. p-Kongo [49], There there are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars:[7]. shared innovation: *als-/*ils- 'tongue': *a-/*i-attrib. p-Aroid [152], A widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic "templates" are placed. [31] They are all spoken in southwest Ethiopia except for the Ganza language, spoken in Sudan. p-Ogoni The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. innovation: 'send' > 'direct,' hence 'command, rule'), (Agaw *a allows PAA vowel reconstructions *a, *aa, *o, or *e), (Sem., Eg. [133], A widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. [82] Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. ; semantics: egg curves at every point? in *n, as also in #210) 324. Also, how do roots work? reflex), (root #723 + *x extend. Proto-Chadic reconstruction is in its infancy, Proto-Cushitic is even less developed, and according to Glottolog it's not demonstrable that Omotic languages are even related to each other, let alone as part of Afro-Asiatic. Report Save. [158] Most grammars of AA posit a distinction between perfective and imperfective verbal aspects, which can be found in Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, most Chadic languages, and some Omotic languages. Kadu ref. ; PS, Eg., Ch. ; *u < *i /#-p_C-#? 2.12. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques. innovation: 'grow' > 'live,' whence Eg. [154] In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, and some Chadic languages, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given verb are dependent on the vocalic template. The proto-language of each Afroasiatic branch developed its own distinct vocabulary of food production, further supporting the view that herding and cultivation emerged separately in each branch after the proto-Afroasiatic period ( 7, 8 ). [140] Some languages in AA have a marked nominative alignment, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic. [99] In all AA languages, consonants can be bilabial, alveolar, velar, and glottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. ; Eg., Sem. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian) : vowels, tone, consonants, and vocabulary / Christopher Ehret Get this Comments (0) Librarian's View Copyright Status Online In the Library Order a copy Request this item to view in the Library's reading rooms using your library card. [166] There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. [101] The Omotic forms of the personal pronouns differ from the others, with only the plural forms in North Omotic appearing potentially to be cognate. [183], Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. This family was formally described and named "Semitic" by August Ludwig von Schlzer in 1781. Thanks for viewing our Ebay listing! [29] The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic. FOR SALE! [134] A system K (masculine), T (feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic. p-Katloid p-North Bauchi Afroasiatic (Afro-Asiatic), also known as Afrasian or Hamito-Semitic, Semito-Hamitic, or Erythraean is a large language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and parts of the Sahel. Cognate Dictionary Studies in Baltic and Indo-European Linguistics The Roots of Hinduism Latin - nus, -na, -nus and -neus Tracing the Indo-Europeans Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo- . Proto-Afroasiatic, sometimes also referred to as Proto-Afrasian, is the reconstructed proto-language from which all modern Afroasiatic languages are descended. [16] Several issues with the label "Hamito-Semitic" have led to its decline in use by later scholars. See . to domestic animals in general, then narrowing in PS and Eg. A relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physician Judah ibn Quraysh, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies. [34] The Cushitic family is traditionally spit into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic. These classifications of language sub-sets vary according to different texts. There is some evidence from Coptic, but this may be unrelated to AA. Upload your video About the author Nara Nilo-Saharan Tadaksahak, p-Niger-Congo ), (root seen also in #984 + *n non-fin. [118], Attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably. Benfys title was later inverted to make Hamito-Semitic but over time racial connotations were applied to this name (Voegelin, p.13). [131], Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity),[133] while in others, plural forms are ungendered. except for Semitic, which is also spoken in the Middle-East and Malta, all branches of the Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early scholars of Afroasiatic. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. These include Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Altaic and Dravidian (Atlas, p.74). *kop-sole (of foot . [142][143] Zygmont Frajzyngier states that a general characteristic of case marking in AA languages is that it tends to mark roles such as genitive, dative, locative, etc. [30] Most Chadic languages are located in the Chad basin, with the exception of Hausa. [153][168][h], Some AA branches have what is called a "suffix conjugation", formed by using pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number and a verbal adjective. Due to isolation, Icelandic has changed the least and is most similar to Old Norse, and therefore probably also to Proto-Germanic. Momo with pre-PAA root *way thus having been a n. or adj. envisaged a tome citing several hundred reconstructed roots; he did manage, however, to publish over a hundred (53 proto-roots were published, for example, in Hodge 1981). Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 June 2016 Alan S. Kaye Article Metrics Save PDF bw 'plant used in medicine' (med) Central Chadic: *abay 'leaf' Proto-Afro-Asiatic: * (a-)bil- Meaning: door Semitic: *abul- 'door, gate' Western Chadic: *HVbil- 'door' Central Cushitic (Agaw): *bil- 'door' 1, 'hole, window' 2 p-Chadic innovation: 'not want' > 'not need,' hence 'be sated'), (Eg., Sem. [189] In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic. The only branch that's actually E is Berber. [101] It is generally agreed that only the obstruents had a contrast between voiceless and voiced forms in Proto-Afroasiatic, whereas continuants were voiceless. The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. innovation: shift to outflow of water, not from body; root *-sa- seen in #540 + *t dur. Ekoid [121] Such scholars postulate that tones developed to compensate for lost or reduced syllables, and note that certain tones are often associated with certain syllable-final consonants.[125]. In Afro-Asiatic, there are five main families. [190] Some South Cushitic numerals are borrowed from Nilotic languages, other Cushitic numerals have been borrowed from Ethiopian Semitic languages. shared innovation: *isin-/*usun- 'they' (originally fem./masc. Additionally, Joseph Greenberg argued that "Hamitic" has racial connotations, and that the name "Hamito-Semitic" overstates the centrality of the Semitic languages within the family. Map of Afro-Asiatic languages distribution (click to enlarge it) >>14700332 Root Structure Patterning in Proto . p-Central Khoisan [103][101] The feminine marker T is one of the most consistent aspects across the different branches of AA;[133] in addition to deriving feminine nouns in many branches, it also functions as a diminutive, pejorative, and/or singulative marker in some languages. p-Benue-Congo [195] Writing in 2004, John Huehnergaard notes the great difficulty in establishing cognate sets across the family. ; PC variant *damn-), (Ch., Eg., Sem. This great divide has made travel difficult so linguistic boundaries tend to be based on either side. innovation: addition of *b extend., imputing meaning 'to count'), to show, bring to (ones) notice or attention, (Ch., Berber, and Eg. [29], There are about 30,[34] 50,[35] or 70[36] Cushitic languages, spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania. WCh WOT The Proto-Afrasian Phonological System Unlike the comparative-historical study of the Indo-European languagefamily, which has a long history, the comparative-historical study of the Afrasian language familyis still not far advanced, though enormous progress has been made in recent years. *y: adjective suffix: 3. of proto-Afroasiatic cultivation. [54][73][9] The reluctance of some scholars to recognize Chadic as a member of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s. [6][7], with the latter two having fallen out of favor in English but still seeing frequent usage in other languages, such as German.